AccountingQA Latest Questions

Aditi
Aditi
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  2. Mehak
    This answer was edited.

    Every business requires research and development to create innovative products for consumers. More innovative and creative products and services are more popular among customers, leading to increased revenue and profits for the business. Creating new products or designing changes and testing existinRead more

    Every business requires research and development to create innovative products for consumers. More innovative and creative products and services are more popular among customers, leading to increased revenue and profits for the business.

    Creating new products or designing changes and testing existing products also forms a part of research and development.

    Examples of Research and Development costs are –

    1. Salaries of employees
    2. Cost of making prototypes
    3. Cost of raw material
    4. Overhead expenses

    Let us now understand how research and development costs are treated in Financial Statements.

    Research and Development Costs are generally shown as an expense in the Income Statement.

    IAS-38

    IAS-38 majorly governs the accounting of research and development costs. There are two phases in R&D:

    • Research: During this phase, costs are incurred for understanding or designing the product. These costs are expensed as incurred costs as there is an uncertainty of a future benefit.
    •  Development: Economic value can be ascertained during this phase and hence, the costs incurred can be capitalized as Intangible assets. To be recognised as intangible assets, the following conditions shall be satisfied:

    1. it is developed with the intention of putting it to use in the future

    2.  the asset shall hold an economic value

    3. the costs can be measured reliably

    Treatment of R&D costs in the Financial statements:

      1. Income statement: Research costs are shown as expenses in the income statement. However, development costs if capitalized as intangible assets can be amortised over time.
      2. Balance Sheet: Capitalised development costs are shown as intangible assets under the Assets head of the Balance Sheet.

    Conclusion

    The above discussion can be summarised as follows:

    1. Research and development is essential for creating innovative and creative products and services.
    2. Accounting standard IAS-38 governs the accounting for Research and Development.
    3. Research costs are usually shown as an expense in the Income statement of the business.
    4.  Development costs when capitalised can be shown as Intangible assets in the Balance Sheet.
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A_Team
A_Team
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Final AccountsLoose Tools
  2. Vijay Curious M.Com
    This answer was edited.

    Let me begin by giving a small explanation of what loose tools are before we dive into their accounting treatment. Loose tools are assets that are used in various steps of the production process and therefore are vital for the conversion of raw materials into finished goods. They are considered as cRead more

    Let me begin by giving a small explanation of what loose tools are before we dive into their accounting treatment.

    Loose tools are assets that are used in various steps of the production process and therefore are vital for the conversion of raw materials into finished goods. They are considered as current assets of the business as their useful life is limited. They have a small monetary value (cost-efficient) and high turnover. Examples of loose tools include screwdrivers, hammers, etc.

    One may say loose tools like screwdrivers and hammers can be used for more than one year and therefore should be classified as non-current assets. But unlike fixed assets, these loose tools have a high probability of being misplaced or lost. Hence they are classified as current assets.

    Since loose tools are treated as an asset for the business, they are shown as a debit balance in the trial balance.

    The cost of loose tools consumed for the year will be shown on the debit side of the Profit & Loss A/c as an expense. In the balance sheet, loose tools are shown on the Assets side under the head Current Assets and sub-head Inventories. Since they aid the production process, loose tools are shown as a part of the inventory of the business.

    Let us take an example,

    XYZ Ltd. at the beginning of the year had loose tools worth 5,000. During the year they purchased loose tools worth 500. At the end of the year, the company valued its loose tools at 4,500.

    Now let us find the cost of loose tools consumed. The formula for finding the cost of loose tools consumed is as follows:

    Cost of loose tools consumed  = Opening inventory of loose tools + Purchases of loose tools – Closing inventory of loose tools

    Cost of loose tools consumed = 5,000 + 500 – 4,500 = 1,000

    So, the cost of loose tools consumed (1000) will be shown on the debit side of the P&L A/c as follows:

    The closing inventory of loose tools worth 4,500 will be shown on the assets side of the balance sheet under the head current assets and sub-head inventory in the following manner:

    One thing to remember here is there is an exception to loose tools. While calculating liquidity ratios like the Current ratio, Quick ratio, etc. loose tools are excluded from current assets. The reason for this is loose tools cannot be easily converted into cash i.e. they are less liquid. The purpose of calculating the current ratio is to check the liquidity of a company. Including loose tools (which cannot be easily converted into cash) in current assets defeats the purpose of calculating the ratio.

     

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prashant06
prashant06
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  2. Manvi Pursuing ACCA
    This answer was edited.

    Return inwards are the goods returned by the customer to the seller. The goods are returned for reasons like defects, excess delivery, and low quality. Return inwards are also known as Sales Returns. Sales returns are a contra account to sales revenue. The amount of sales returns is deducted from thRead more

    Return inwards are the goods returned by the customer to the seller. The goods are returned for reasons like defects, excess delivery, and low quality. Return inwards are also known as Sales Returns.

    Sales returns are a contra account to sales revenue. The amount of sales returns is deducted from the total sales in the Trading section of the Trading and Profit & Loss Account.

    In subsidiary books, return inwards are recorded only for those goods which are sold on credit to the customer.

    For example, On 1 August E Electronics sold 50 units of television to Hill Hotels on credit for Rs.25,000 each. Out of which 5 units were found to be defective and were returned back to E Electronics. In that accounting period, E Electronics made a total sales of Rs.20,00,000 (including the item sold to Hill Hotels).

    E Electronics in its Trading section of Trading and P&L A/c will account for a sales return of Rs.1,25,000 (Rs.25,000*5) and this amount will be deducted from the total sales. The same will be recorded in the subsidiary books as it accounts for sales made on credit.

    Extract of Profit & Loss Account:

    For a business, sales returns will either have a decrease in the sales revenue or it will increase the sales returns and allowances which is a contra account to sales revenue. An increase in sales returns will decrease gross profit.

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Aadil
AadilCurious
In: >

  2. Vijay Curious M.Com
    This answer was edited.

    As you know all transactions occurring in a business are recorded in the journal (book of original entry) in chronological order. After recording them in the journal, they are posted to their respective ledger accounts. Here I've explained the steps involved in posting a journal entry to the ledger.Read more

    As you know all transactions occurring in a business are recorded in the journal (book of original entry) in chronological order. After recording them in the journal, they are posted to their respective ledger accounts.

    Here I’ve explained the steps involved in posting a journal entry to the ledger.

    Posting of an account debited in the journal entry:

    Step 1: Identify the account which has to be debited in the ledger.

    Step 2: Write the date of the transaction under the ‘Date Column’ of the debit side of the ledger account.

    Step 3: Write the name of the account which has been credited in the journal entry in the ‘Particulars Column’ on the debit side of the account as “To (name of the account)”.

    Step 4: Write the page number of the journal where the entry exists in the ‘Journal Folio (JF) Column’.

    Step 5: Enter the amount in the ‘Amount Column’ on the debit side of the ledger account.

    Posting of an account credited in the journal entry:

    Step 1: Identify the account which has to be credited in the ledger.

    Step 2: Write the date of the transaction under the ‘Date Column’ of the credit side of the ledger account.

    Step 3: Write the name of the account which has been debited in the journal entry in the ‘Particulars Column’ on the credit side of the account as “By (name of the account)”.

    Step 4: Write the page number of the journal where the entry exists in the ‘Journal Folio (JF) Column’.

    Step 5: Enter the amount in the ‘Amount Column’ on the credit side of the ledger account.

    I’ll explain the process of preparing a ledger A/c with a simple transaction.

    On 1st May ABC Ltd. purchased machinery for 5,00,000. In the Journal the following entry will be made.

    Machinery A/c   5,00,000
       To Bank A/c   5,00,000
    (Being machinery purchased for 5,00,000)

    Let’s assume that this entry appears on page no. 32 of the journal. Now we will open Machinery A/c and Bank A/c in the Ledger.

    On the debit side of the Machinery A/c “To Bank A/c” will be written. In the Bank A/c “By Machinery A/c” will be written on the credit side.

    An extract of both the accounts are as follows:

    Machinery A/c

    Date Particulars J.F. Amt. Date Particulars J.F. Amt.
    May-01 To Bank A/c 32   5,00,000

     

    Bank A/c

    Date Particulars J.F. Amt. Date Particulars J.F. Amt.
    May-01 By Machinery A/c 32   5,00,000
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AbhishekBatabyal
AbhishekBatabyalHelpful
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  2. Samar Sparsh

    The current ratio is a liquidity ratio that measures a firm’s ability to pay off its short-term liabilities with its current assets. The current ratio is important because short-term liabilities are due within a period of twelve months. The current ratio is calculated using two standard figures thatRead more

    The current ratio is a liquidity ratio that measures a firm’s ability to pay off its short-term liabilities with its current assets. The current ratio is important because short-term liabilities are due within a period of twelve months.

    The current ratio is calculated using two standard figures that are shown in the company’s balance sheet: current assets and current liabilities. The formula for the same goes as:

    Current ratio = Current Assets / Current Liabilities

    A current ratio of 2:1 is considered ideal. Generally, a ratio between 1.5 to 2 is considered beneficial for the business, which means that the company has more financial resources (Current Assets) to cover its short-term debt (Current Liabilities).

    A high current ratio may indicate that the business is having difficulties managing its capital efficiently to generate profits.

    On the other hand, a lower current ratio (especially lower than 1) would signify that the company’s current liabilities exceed its current assets and the business may have difficulty covering its short-term debt. Although the definition of a good current ratio may vary in the different industry groups.

    Example- Where,

    1) CR is 2:1, the company is in a good situation as it has double the Current Assets in order to cover the short-term debt.

    2) CR is 0.5:1, the company is not in a good situation as it has only half the Current Assets in order to cover the short-term debt.

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Karan
Karan
In: >

  2. PriyanshiGupta Graduated, B.Com
    This answer was edited.

    The debts that have a higher chance of not being paid are called doubtful debts. They are a part of the regular dealing of the company and may arise due to disputes or treachery on the part of debtors. Bad debts refer to the doubtful debts that no longer seem to be recoverable from the business. WriRead more

    The debts that have a higher chance of not being paid are called doubtful debts. They are a part of the regular dealing of the company and may arise due to disputes or treachery on the part of debtors.

    Bad debts refer to the doubtful debts that no longer seem to be recoverable from the business.

    Written off means an expense, income, asset, liability is no more recorded in the books of accounts because they no longer hold relevance for the business.

    When doubtful debts turn into bad debt, they are written off from the books after a stipulated time as they no longer seem recoverable.

    If any cash is received against such bad debts that were written off, it is known as cash received against bad debts written off. Cash is received against bad debts usually when the debtor is declared insolvent and money is recovered from its estate.

    Bad debts recovered are considered an income for the company as they were previously written off as a loss and any cash received against it is considered as income.

    Journal entry for such situation is:

    Cash or Bank A/c (Dr.)

    To Bad Debts Recovered A/c

    We debit the increase in assets, and since cash is coming into the business it is debited.

    We credit the income, and since bad debts recovered is an income to the business it is credited.

     

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Karan
Karan
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  2. PriyanshiGupta Graduated, B.Com
    This answer was edited.

    Sales return shows the sale price of goods returned by customers. It is deducted from sales or gross sales in the income statement. It is a contra revenue account that represents returns from the customers and deductions to the original selling price, in case of any defective product received by theRead more

    Sales return shows the sale price of goods returned by customers. It is deducted from sales or gross sales in the income statement.

    It is a contra revenue account that represents returns from the customers and deductions to the original selling price, in case of any defective product received by the customer or any other manufacturing default.

    Sales allowances arise when any customer accepts the product at a lower price than the original price or, in other words, a reduction in the price charged by a seller, due to any problem related to the sold product like a quality issue, an incorrect price charged or shipment issue.

    Sales allowances are created before the final billing is paid by the buyer.

    Journal entry for sales return and allowances:

    Dr. Sales return and allowances Amt  
    Cr. Accounts receivable   Amt
    • Sales Return Account is debited because it is reverse of Sales Account which is credited at the time of sale.
    • Account Receivable Account is credited to reverse the debtors debited at the time of sale.
    • Hence Sales Return entry is just reverse of the entry recorded at the time of sale.

     

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AbhishekBatabyal
AbhishekBatabyalHelpful
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  2. Ayushi Curious Pursuing CA

    Introduction A capital reduction account is an account used to pass entries related to the internal reconstruction of a company. During reconstruction, paid-up capital reduced is credited to this account; hence its name is capital reduction account. It is also known as the reconstruction account. TyRead more

    Introduction

    A capital reduction account is an account used to pass entries related to the internal reconstruction of a company. During reconstruction, paid-up capital reduced is credited to this account; hence its name is capital reduction account. It is also known as the reconstruction account.

    Type of account

    A capital reduction account is a temporary account open just to carry out internal reconstruction. It represents the sacrifices made by the shareholders, debenture holders and creditors. Also, any appreciation in the value of assets is credited to this account. It is closed to capital reduction when internal reconstruction is completed.

    Entries passed through capital reduction account

    When paid-up capital is cancelled.

    When paid-up capital is cancelled, the share capital account is debited and the capital reduction account is debited as share capital is getting reduced.

    Share Capital A/c Dr. Amt
    To Capital Reduction A/c Cr. Amt

    When assets and liabilities are revalued

    At the time of internal reconstruction, the gain or loss on revaluation is transferred to the capital reduction account instead of the revaluation reserve.

    Writing off of accumulated losses and intangible assets

    The credit balance of the capital reduction account is used to write off the accumulated losses and intangible assets like goodwill, patents etc which are unrepresented by capital. The capital reduction account is debited and profit and loss account and intangible assets accounts are credited.

    Capital Reduction A/c Dr. Amt
    To Profit and loss A/c Cr. Amt
    To Goodwill/ Patents A/c Cr. Amt

    Treatment in books of account

    The balance in the capital reduction account, whether debit or credit, it is transferred to the capital reduction account. Hence, it doesn’t appear on the balance sheet.

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A_Team
A_Team
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  2. GautamSaxena Curious .
    This answer was edited.

    Fixed Working Capital Permanent working capital is also known as fixed working capital. Working capital is the excess of the current assets over the current liability and further, it is classified on the basis of periodicity, into two categories, permanent working capital, and variable working capitRead more

    Fixed Working Capital

    Permanent working capital is also known as fixed working capital.

    Working capital is the excess of the current assets over the current liability and further, it is classified on the basis of periodicity, into two categories, permanent working capital, and variable working capital.

    Permanent working capital means the part of working capital that is permanently locked up in current assets to carry business smoothly and effortlessly. Thus, it’s also known as fixed working capital.

    The minimum amount of current assets which is required to conduct a business smoothly during the year is called permanent working capital. The amount of permanent working capital depends upon the nature, growth, and size of the business.

    Fixed working capital can further be divided into two categories:

    • Regular working capital: It is the minimum amount of capital required by a business to fund its day-to-day operations of a business. E.g. payment of wages, salary, overhead expenses, etc.
    • Reserve margin working capital: Apart from day-to-day activities, additional working capital may also be required for contingencies that may arise at any time like strike, business depression, etc.

     

    Whereas, on the other hand, variable working capital, also known as temporary working capital refers to the level of working capital that is temporary and keeps fluctuating.

     

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A_Team
A_Team
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  2. Bonnie Curious MBA (Finance)

    Yes, non-current assets are also known as fixed assets. These are long-term assets that are not intended for sale but are used by a company in its business operations. Examples of non-current assets include property, plant, and equipment, as well as intangible assets like patents and trademarks. TheRead more

    Yes, non-current assets are also known as fixed assets. These are long-term assets that are not intended for sale but are used by a company in its business operations.

    Examples of non-current assets include property, plant, and equipment, as well as intangible assets like patents and trademarks. These assets are recorded on a company’s balance sheet and are reported at their historical cost or at their fair market value, depending on the type of asset.

     

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