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Astha
AsthaLeader
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Capital ExpenditureRevenue Expenditure
  2. GautamSaxena Curious .
    This answer was edited.

    Capital Expenditure Capital expenditure refers to the money a business spends to buy, maintain, or improve the quality of its assets. Capital expenditures are the expenses incurred by an organization for long-term benefits, i.e on the long-term assets which help in improving the efficiency or capaciRead more

    Capital Expenditure

    Capital expenditure refers to the money a business spends to buy, maintain, or improve the quality of its assets. Capital expenditures are the expenses incurred by an organization for long-term benefits, i.e on the long-term assets which help in improving the efficiency or capacity of the company. These expenses are borne by the company to boost its earning capacity.

    The investment done by the companies on assets is capital in nature and through capital expenditure, the company may use it for acquiring new assets or may use it in the maintenance of previous ones. These expenditures are added to the asset side of the balance sheet.

    Example: Purchase of machinery, patents, copyrights, installation of equipment, etc.

    Revenue Expenditure

    Revenue expenditure refers to the routine expenditures incurred by the business to manage day-to-day expenses. They are incurred for a shorter duration and are mostly limited to an accounting year. These expenses are borne by a company to sustain its profitability. These expenditures are shown in the income statement.

    These expenditures do not increase the revenue but stay maintained. These expenses are not capitalized.

    They are divided into two sub-categories:

    1. Expenditures for generating revenue for a business- Those expenditures essential for meeting the operational cost of the business are further classified as operating expenses.
    2. Expenditures for maintaining revenue-generating assets- Those expenses incurred by the business for repairing and maintenance of the assets of an organization to keep them in a working state.

     

    Example: Wages, salary, insurance, rent, electricity, taxes, etc.

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Aadil
AadilCurious
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  2. Simerpreet Helpful CMA Inter qualified
    This answer was edited.

    Receipts and payment account is a summary of cash transactions prepared at the end of the accounting period from the cash book where the transactions are recorded in chronological order. It is an Asset/ Real Account that records both revenue and capital receipts and payments. It is mainly prepared fRead more

    Receipts and payment account is a summary of cash transactions prepared at the end of the accounting period from the cash book where the transactions are recorded in chronological order. It is an Asset/ Real Account that records both revenue and capital receipts and payments. It is mainly prepared for non-profit organizations and helps in the preparation of final accounts.

    Proforma

    Income and Expenditure Account is an account prepared by not-for-profit organizations to see whether the income of a particular period is sufficient to cover the expenses of that period. If the revenue is more than the expenses, it is known as “Surplus” or “Excess of Income over Expenditure” and if the expenses are more than Income, it is known as “Deficit” or “Excess of Expenditure over Income”. The account is prepared on the accrual basis of accounting i.e. all revenue incomes whether received or not and all revenue expenditures of the period whether paid or not are taken into account. However, in case of surplus, the money is not distributed among the members. Similarly, if there is a deficit it is not borne by the members.

    Proforma

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Bonnie
BonnieCurious
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  2. AbhishekBatabyal Helpful Pursuing CA, BCOM (HONS)
    This answer was edited.

    Fictitious assets On seeing or hearing ‘fictitious’, the words which come to our mind are ‘not true, ‘fake’ or ‘fantasy’. So, fictitious assets are those items that appear on the assets side of the balance sheet but are actually not assets. In substance, fictitious assets are the expenses and lossesRead more

    Fictitious assets

    On seeing or hearing ‘fictitious’, the words which come to our mind are ‘not true, ‘fake’ or ‘fantasy’. So, fictitious assets are those items that appear on the assets side of the balance sheet but are actually not assets.

    In substance, fictitious assets are the expenses and losses that are not completely written off in a financial year and are required to be carried forward to the next financial year.

    The examples of fictitious assets are as follows:

    1. Deferred Advertisement expense
    2. Loss on the issue of debentures.
    3. Debit balance of Profit and Loss account ( Net loss )*
    4. Preliminary expenses.

    Fictitious assets appear on the asset side of the balance sheet as expenses and losses have a debit balance.

    *when the balance sheet is prepared as per Schedule III of Companies Act, the Net loss is shown as a negative figure under the head Reserve and Surplus.

    Intangible Assets

    Intangible assets mean the assets which don’t have any physical existence. They cannot be seen or touched but are assets because they do provide future economic benefits to the business. Like tangible assets (like machinery and building), they can be also created, purchased or sold.

    Like tangible assets are depreciated, intangible assets are gradually written over by amortization over their useful lifespan to account for the economic benefits provided by them.

    Following are the examples of intangible assets:

    1. Goodwill
    2. Brand name
    3. Trademark
    4. Patents
    5. Copyrights

    Intangible assets which are created by the business-like goodwill or brand recognition do not appear in the balance sheet.

    Only acquired intangible assets can be shown in the balance sheet. Like purchased goodwill, patents, trademarks etc.

    Intangible assets also face impairment if their fair value is less than their carrying value after deducting amortization expense. The difference between carrying value and fair value is shown in the Profit and loss A/c as impairment charge and the asset is valued at fair value in the balance sheet.

     

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Manvi
Manvi
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  2. Ayushi Curious Pursuing CA

    Let the business in our example be X Trading. The 15 transactions are as follows: 1st April - X Trading started its business with Rs. 10,000 cash and furniture of Rs. 5,000. 5th April - Purchased 1,000 units of goods for Rs. 1,000 in cash from Ram. 10th April – Bought stationery for Rs. 100 in cash.Read more

    Let the business in our example be X Trading. The 15 transactions are as follows:

    1. 1st April – X Trading started its business with Rs. 10,000 cash and furniture of Rs. 5,000.
    2. 5th April – Purchased 1,000 units of goods for Rs. 1,000 in cash from Ram.
    3. 10th April – Bought stationery for Rs. 100 in cash.
    4. 25Th April – Sold 500 goods for Rs. 750 in cash.
    5. 1st May – Paid a rent of Rs. 1200 ( 1st April to 31st March)
    6. 1st June – Took a loan of Rs. 15,000 from the bank at interest@10%.
    7. 15Th June – Sold 400 goods for Rs. 600 to Shyam in credit.
    8. 1st August – Bought a computer for Rs. 10,000 in from ABC Computers in credit.
    9. 15th October – Received Rs. 300 from Shyam in cash.
    10. 1st November – Purchased 2,000 units of goods for 2,000 from Ram in credit.
    11. 15th November – Paid Rs. 5,000 to ABC Computers through cheque.
    12. 1st December – Sold 1,000 units of goods for Rs. 1,500. Received cheque as payment.
    13. 1st January – Obtained Trade license (valid for 5 years) by paying fees of Rs. 1000 through online bank transfer.
    14. 15Th February – Paid Rs. 1,500 to Ram. Through cheque.
    15. 15Th March – Drawings made of Rs. 2000 in cash.

    We will prepare the journal, ledgers and the trial balance from the above transactions.

    Journal

    Journal is known as the book of primary entry or book of original entry. It is because every transaction is recorded in form of journal entries in the journal. Every journal entry affects at least two accounts (dual effect). A transaction has to be a monetary transaction otherwise it cannot be recorded as a journal entry.

    The procedure of recording transactions as journal entries is simple if we follow the modern rules of accounting.

    So first we have to identify which and what type of account does a transaction affect. The types of accounts are:

    1. Asset – Debit in case of increase Credit in case of decrease.
    2. Liabilities – Debit in case of decrease Credit in case of increase.
    3. Capital – Debit in case of decrease Credit in case of increase.
    4. Expense – Debit in case of increase Credit in case of decrease.
    5. Income – Debit in case of decrease Credit in case of increase.

    Ledger

    Ledgers are known as the books of principal entry or book of final entry. All the journal entries recorded in the journal are posted to the ledgers. A Ledger is where the entries related to a particular account are recorded. For example, all the transactions related to salary will be recorded in the salary account ledger.

    It is very important to prepare the ledger to arrive at the balance of each account in the books of concern so that it can prepare its trial balance.

    The procedure of posting journal entries in the ledger account is done is as follows:

    The ledgers are as follows:

     

     

    Trial Balance

    The trial balance is not a part of the books of accounts. It is just a statement prepared to check the arithmetical accuracy of the books of the accounts. It also helps to know about the omission and posting mistakes. It is prepared after the ledger accounts have been drawn and their balances have been ascertained.

    The balance of all the ledger accounts is posted on either side of the trial balance. Debit balance of the account on the debit side and credit balance of the account on the credit side.

    Also, the closing stock from the financial statements of the previous year is posted on the debit side of the trial balance as opening stock to account for the stock with the business at the beginning of the financial year.

    Following is the trial balance of X trading:

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AbhishekBatabyal
AbhishekBatabyalHelpful
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  2. PriyanshiGupta Graduated, B.Com
    This answer was edited.

    Activity-based costing (ABC) is a system used to find production costs. It breaks down overhead costs between production-related activities and other activities. The ABC system assigns costs to each activity that goes into production, such as workers testing a product. ABC is based on the principleRead more

    Activity-based costing (ABC) is a system used to find production costs.
    It breaks down overhead costs between production-related activities and other activities.

    The ABC system assigns costs to each activity that goes into production, such as workers testing a product. ABC is based on the principle that ‘prod­ucts consume activities.’

    Traditional cost systems allocate costs based on direct labor, material costs, revenue, or other simplistic methods. As a result, traditional systems tend to over-cost high volume products, services, and customers; and under-cost low volume.

    Hence, Activity Based Costing was developed for determining the cost. The basic feature of ABC is its focus on activities. It uses activities as the basis for determining the costs of products or services.

    Activity-Based Costing is mostly used in manufacturing industries, however, its application is not only limited to that. Various industries like, construction, health care, medical organizations also use this method of assigning costs. Industries where customized products are made also tend to use such methods as it is easier to charge appropriate overhead costs from the customer.

    Objectives of Activity-Based Costing:

    Companies adopt ABC to assign cost elements to the products, activities, or services so that it helps the management to decide:

    • which cost can be eliminated or cut back
    • which products are unprofitable
    • if a product is over-priced or under-priced
    • if any activity is ineffective
    • various processing of the same product to yield better results

    Advantages of Activity Based Costing are:

    • it takes into consideration both direct and overhead costs of creating a product.
    • it recognizes the fact that different products require different indirect expenses.
    • it sets prices more accurately.
    • it helps to see what overhead cost the company might be able to cut back on.
    • it helps to segregate fixed costs, variable cost, and overhead cost which helps to identify “cost drivers”.
    • it focuses on cost allocation in operational management.

    Before implementing ABC, a company should consider the following:

    • manually driven Activity Based Accounting cost derivers is an inefficient use of resources.
    • it is an expensive method and it is difficult to implement
    • for small gains, there are alternative costing methods available for a company to use.

    Formula=  Total Cost Pool / Cost Driver

    For example:

    For a company, the salary for workers is Rs 1,00,000 for a financial year, the number of labor hours worked is 50,00 hrs. The cost driver rate is calculated by dividing the workers’ salary by the labor hours worked, that is,

    Salary of the workers / Number of labor hours

    Rs 1,00,000 / 50,000 hrs = Rs 2 per labor hour.

    In the above example, the salary of the workers is the total cost pool or the overhead cost for which we want to find the cost driver rate and labor hours is the cost driver, that is, on the basis of what we want to find the rate.

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Astha
AsthaLeader
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  2. PriyanshiGupta Graduated, B.Com
    This answer was edited.

    The value of inventory at the end of the financial year or balance sheet date is called closing stock. Closing stock includes: Raw Material Work-in-Progress Finished Goods Example: If the value of raw material is Rs 10,000, value of WIP is Rs 5,000 and value of Finished Goods is Rs 15,000 then valueRead more

    The value of inventory at the end of the financial year or balance sheet date is called closing stock. Closing stock includes:

    • Raw Material
    • Work-in-Progress
    • Finished Goods

    Example:

    If the value of raw material is Rs 10,000, value of WIP is Rs 5,000 and value of Finished Goods is Rs 15,000 then value of Closing Stock will be Rs (10,000 + 5,000 + 15,000) = Rs 30,000

    Adjustment entries are done on the accrual basis of accounting, that is, income is recorded when earned and not received and expenses are recorded when incurred and not paid. Adjustment entries are usually made before or after the preparation of the trial balance at the end of the accounting period.

    If the entries are made after the preparation of the trial balance, then two adjustment entries are recorded while preparing Trading and Profit & Loss A/c.

    Since closing stock is an item outside the trial balance, the double-entry would be:

    The journal entry

    Closing Stock A/c  (Dr.) Amt
    To Trading and Profit & Loss A/c Amt
    • Trading and Profit & Loss A/c is credited because it is of profit to the company and hence will be shown on the credit side.
    • Closing Stock is debited as an asset for the company and it will be recorded for the first time in accounting books, hence, will be debited.

    The second adjustment would be to show closing stock on the balance sheet and since the closing stock is an asset it is shown under the head Current Assets.  

    In case where adjustment for Closing Stock is to be done before preparation of Trial Balance, then it will be shown on the credit side of the Trial Balance, since it is an asset for the company and will have a credit brought down balance as shown in the image.

    Later, while preparing Balance Sheet, Closing Stock will be shown on the Asset side of the Balance Sheet.

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AbhishekBatabyal
AbhishekBatabyalHelpful
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  2. Ayushi Curious Pursuing CA

    Introduction Internal reconstruction refers to the process of restructuring a sick company’s balance sheet by certain methods to turn it financially healthy, thus saving it from potential liquidation. Explanation When a company has been making losses for many years, it has a huge amount of accumulatRead more

    Introduction

    Internal reconstruction refers to the process of restructuring a sick company’s balance sheet by certain methods to turn it financially healthy, thus saving it from potential liquidation.

    Explanation

    When a company has been making losses for many years, it has a huge amount of accumulated losses due to which the reserve and surplus appear at a very low or negative amount in the balance sheet.

    Also, such a company is said to be overcapitalised as it is not able to generate enough returns to its capital.

    As the company is overcapitalised, the assets are also overvalued. The balance sheet also contains many fictitious assets and unrepresented intangible assets.

    The balance sheet of such a ‘sick’ company looks like the following:

    Hence, to save the company from liquidation,

    • its assets and liabilities are revalued and reassessed,
    • its capital is reduced by paying off part of paid-up capital to shareholders or cancelling the paid-up capital.
    • the right of shareholders related to preference dividends is altered,
    • agreements are made with creditors to reduce their claims and
    • fictitious assets and accumulated losses are written off.

    In this way, its balance sheet gets rid of all undesirable elements and the company gets a new life without being liquidated.  This process is known as internal reconstruction.

    Legal compliance

    The internal reconstruction of a company is governed by the provisions of the Companies Act, 2013.

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